Certainly - when I first saw Goju Ryu in the Hereford Leisure Centre - I couldn't believe my eyes! To that point, I had only seen and physically experienced Wado Kai, Shotokan, and Shukokai - all Japanese arts - but never Okinawan styles. My teacher (Master Chan Tin Sang) told me Karate-Do had come from China - but that the Japanese had altered its physical techniques (deliberately removing the distinctly "Chinese" internal aspect) so that the transplanted arts now resembled Japanese sword arts. Bear in mind that this generation of Hakka-Chinese had just fought a brutal war with the Imperial Japanese - so Okinawa was always viewed as "Chinese" (or so I learned later). Remember, I was only in my mid-teens myself and did not understand things that clearly.

​As matters stood, I experienced three Japanese Karate-Do styles - and then I learned the basics of Goju Ryu from your good-self - and my gongfu teacher was astonished! He couldn't believe the integration of hard and soft! He kept asking me who you were and where you had trained! One time (during 1987) Master Chan came to Hereford to see me - and looked in at your class. He was too shy to interfere - as he wasn't sure of the Japanese involvement (if any) - and I didn't really know (for which he told me off). Until he passed away in 1993, he would sit at dinner-time and tell his Hakka friends about Goju Ryu - and get me to show the basic kata. The circular lower block seems to be the most obvious of the "internal". 

Tony: On Tue, 22 Apr 2025, at 10:29, "morning Adrian. What are your views on this 
Softness as regarding techniques. You can plainly see the Chinese influence. Tony"

Dear Tony

中国传统长兵 虎叉
Chinese Traditional Long Weapon - Tiger Fork (Trident)

At the above link is a video of the Tiger Fork. I believe this is a Southern weapon the Hakka developed to protect their farm land, crops, and livestock from attack by a type of "leopard" - not really a "Tiger" (in the Indian sense) as the translation suggests. These leopards were small (about the stature of a medium-sized dog) - but ferocious like a wild-cat found in Scotland, the US and other places. These cats were thought to have gone extinct in the 1950s - but I understand some have been discovered in remote areas of China and are now a protected species. I never saw one when visiting the Chan ancestral village in the New Territories - but I was taught the fork as part of farming. If you notice, the leopard was known to close-in quickly and scramble all-over the victims body - biting a clawing as it went. The fork follows the supposed trajectory of such a fluid attack - seeking to deflect, trap, stab, and impale. The highly mobile fork is used as a shield - but its counter-measures give an idea of what the Tiger-Leopard was capable of doing. In other words, its attack protocol. 

Of course, the ideogram "虎" (hu3) is used to mean "Tiger" - as in the head, torso, feet, and tail of a "fierce", "brave" and "stern" creature - usually associated with an Indian or Siberian Tiger, but I suspect these creatures would easily smash-through this (Tiger Fork) weapon. Therefore, logically working backwards from the fork technique to the actions of the creature it is combatting - the animal must be smaller in stature - but equally dangerous to encounter in tooth and claw. I think a Leopard or Panther (豹bao4) if a far more likely culprit (literally a small animal shaped like a horse - but covered in spots). A Puma (彪biao3马ma3) - is an Asian Golden Cat (shaped like a small horse) - or a brightly coloured small tiger (which can also be Black or White in the case of a Snow Leopard). 

Tiger Fork Definition:

虎 (hu3) 叉 (cha1) - Tiger Fork (Trident)

虎 (hu3) = Ferocious small tiger-like cat

叉 (cha1) = Wooden shaft with metal trident head

The fork repels (pushes away) - traps (pins-down) and pulls the animal near for despatch. The older ideograms in fact show "two" forks coming together to interlock something trapped between them. This correlates with the idea of communal self-defence and the idea that more than one person at a time would be on duty protecting the boundary of the farming area. As Hakka are a practical people - this weapon would also be used to protect against physical attack from other humans. Indeed, I was taught to use the fork as a means to pin an attacker's feet to the ground - and to break their shins, etc. I think that the Tiger Fork is similar in design to the much more compact Okinawan "Sai" (釵Chai1) - (Japanese) Kan-on: さい (sai): 

The Chinese ideogram 釵 (Chai) is comprised of a left and right-hand particle:

Left-hand particle = 釒(jin1) a conjunction of "金" - consisting of the lower element of "士" (shi4) an upside ritualistic axe made of metal - which is multiplied by the power of two (hence "a lot of") through the middle element "丷" (ba1) - and concentrated in one-place for greater strength (亼ji2) in the upper element. 釵 (Chai) means a metal object of great (condensed) physical and spiritual strength.

Right-hand particle - 叉 (cha1) = in the old dictionaries - related to "study" and "archery" - that is good, correct, and enlightened behaviour. Basically a "right-hand" (又you4) - the outer element - which is skilfully used to grasp a desired object - hence a cultivated "skill" - used in writing with a brush-pen and firing a bow. Infact, the picture above is a left and right hand clasping one-another - representing the use of two Tiger Forks. The "丶" (zhu3) - as the middle element - represents iron ore (minerals) or probably "metal". 叉 (cha1) refers to a three-pronged, metal object used to "grasp" and "hold". 

It is said that 釵 (Chai) represents a "hair-pin" which may well be the case - as in the body clean and tidy is part of the Confucian teaching regarding correct, ritualistic behaviour. Arranging the hair is very much a part of correct behaviour. It would seem that the weapon was named after the hairpin. This would suggest that a Tiger Fork borrows the ideogram related to "hairpin" due to a similarity of shape - with the hairpin being older. A modern Chinese language dictionary states:

'This character was originally used in Japanese to mean (ornamental) hairpin, and was read with a kun'yomi of kanzashi. The similarity in shape between a hairpin and the weapon called a sai later led to this character being used to refer to the weapon. In modern Japanese, this character is read primarily with its on'yomi of sai, and is used to refer to the weapon. The hairpin sense and kanzashi reading are more often spelled 簪.' 

Many Thanks

​Adrian Chan-Wyles

Blogger's Note: I had the honour to have trained under Sensei Tony Smith in Hereford between 1987-1989 at the Hereford Leisure Centre - and again (briefly) in early 2005 (I graded once - attaining two grades in one sitting - namely 9th and 8th Kyu White Belt - moving on from what was then the starter 10th Kyu White Belt). To my mind, Sensei Tony Smith embodies the true spirit of Okinawan Goju Ryu Karate-Do. ACW (15.2.2025)

Hereford Times - Godan Grading is Reward for Anthony’s Hard Work - 26th April 2010

ANTHONY Smith, Sensei at the Hereford Goju Ryu Karate club, has achieved the grade of 5th Dan.

Smith attained his new grade by participating in an intensive weekend’s training and assessment under chief instructor George Andrews (7th Dan) at the Honbu dojo in London.

Smith has been practising Goju Ryu Karate for over 32 years, 28 of which have seen him in charge at the Hereford club as Sensei.

Having achieved his 5th Dan grade, or Godan, he is now one of the most senior grades in the Okinawan Traditional Goju Ryu Karate-do Association (OTGKA) and principal instructor in the western region of the UK.

“I have had to prepare for this grading for a considerable amount of time," said Smith. "To be successful at this level of karate it is essential that you are both physically and mentally prepared for the trial.

"As well as the psychological pressures you are under during the physical element, you are also required to submit an essay discussing many of the discipline’s philosophies.
"I am extremely pleased to have attained my Godan and hope to continue improving my karate for many years to come.”

While the essay is an essential component in the grading process, the physical element is also arduous.

During the weekend’s assessment, Smith had to demonstrate excellence in Kata (choreographed patterns of movement), the application of Kata in practice and participate in Kumite (sparring).

The weekend’s grading process was overseen by OTGKA chief instructor George Andrews, 7th Dan (Nanadan), who has himself been practising karate for 43 years.
Also in attendance was Smith’s second-in-command and son, Luke Smith, 3rd Dan, who praised his father’s achievement: “Achieving the level of 5th Dan is testament to Dad’s commitment and devotion to Goju-Ryu," he said.
​
"Throughout the years, his students have benefited greatly from his experience and knowledge, as have I, and I would like to personally congratulate him on his success.”
The Hereford Goju Ryu Karate club train every Friday at Hereford Cathedral School gym, from 6pm – 8pm. Newcomers of all ages are welcome.

Dear Tony

I was looking at the Chinese characters used to explain "Suri-Ashi" - namely:

步 = suri [Jap] - bu4 [Chin]

法 = ashi [Jap] - fa3 [Chin]

The second ideogram - "法" - is common in older Chinese language texts, usually found in the context of an authoritative set of rules that cannot be improved upon. This term is used in both religious and secular texts. However, the ideogram - "步" - is the operative character.

The "步" ideogram is comprised of an upper and lower particle:

Upper Particle = 止 (zhi3) - originally - a three-toed bare-foot-print (the mark left by a "still" human foot)

Lower Particle = 𣥂 (ta4) - a foot in motion - stepping forward (or backward) via heel-toe, or toe-heel orientation

In other words, to "step", "pace", and to "measure" a specific "distance" between the two-feet when walking (or "stepping") forward, back, between both sides, and along the diagonals, etc.

This is a continuation of the dynamic-tension exercise as found within the Sanchin Kata. The Karate-ka grips an urn (瓮 – Game) with the finger-tips of both hands (simultaneously) [握 – Nigiri] – beginning in Sanchin-stance with the right-leg forward – the practitioner steps in Sanchin-stance up and down the training-hall (Dojo). Whilst the two weighted-jars (urns) are held to the left and right of the upper-thighs whilst being kept in the same orientation – the Sanchin-stance continuously switches from left to right-leg – and right to left-leg, etc.  The “root” to the ground must be maintained at all times – as if the feet are stuck to the floor – whilst being able to move smoothly when required. The feet are both “heavy” (rooted) and “light” (able to shift) without contradiction or hindrance (“步法” – [Suri-Ashi]). The musculature of the hands, finger-tips, and thumbs are all maintained in a state of concentrated tension. When the Urns are picked-up (at the beginning of the exercise) and laid-down (when the exercise is completed) – the knees are bent (as if “squatting”) with the right-leg forward. 

​Assessing the ideogram for “urn” the following can be ascertained:
​
瓮 (Jap: Game) [Chin: Weng4] = pottery urn, jar, jug, and container
瓮 is a variant of “甕” – the constituent particles of which are assessed below:
雍 (yong4) = upper particle – harmony, peace [ideogram constructed from water which is collected in one-place - such as a pool or a moat – from which a bird benefits]
瓦 (wa3) = lower particle – earthenware, pottery [ideogram constructed from from the concept of a building or roofing-tile - made from clay – extracted from the earth]

​The earthenware pot, urn, or jar – is a man-made structure which operates as a “barrier” designed to generate “order” through ensuring “harmony” in the physical environment. Substances placed in the jar are gathered in one-place – and held there without spilling or flowing away. That which is gathered in one-place – is held in good order and is free from error. Even in death, the traditional (Confucian) method involved cremation (or exhumation) – with the human remains cleaned and placed in a burial-urn. This urn was then placed in the “Name Temple” on display – associated with the surname dominant in the local village or town. As any substance can be placed in the Sanchin-Urns – the urns can vary in weight. Of course, the construction of the urns must be stronger than the grip a skilled Goju Ryu practitioner can assert upon the upper-lip area.

​Note: Following a request to explain “Nigiri” (握) or “gripping” – the following is relevant:
​
握 (Jap: Nigiri) [Chin: wo4] = strongly hold, grip, grasp, and control using the hands
扌(shou3) – left-particle = and open-hand – usually written as “手”
屋 (wu1) – right-particle = house, room, roof, and building

The open-hand grasps a structure (or device) which, (like a building in principle), gathers and contains other objects - all in one-place. 

​My expertise is in reading and translating pre-traditional, traditional, modern and simplified Chinese ideograms into British English. As many older Japanese terms are expressed in “traditional” Chinese ideograms (as in “握瓮 – Nigiri-Game”) – it is through the reading of these characters that I can intellectually enter the realm of the Japanese language - and interpret the thought-structures that underlie it. I have noticed, however, that the ideogram “瓮” (Game) within Japanese-language texts is pronounced both “game” and “kame” – why is there this difference? If “瓮” (“urn”) is placed at the beginning of a sentence (as in the first word), then it is pronounced “kame”, whilst if it is placed at the end of the sentence (as the final word), it is pronounced “game”. This is the convention operating within the written (and spoken) Japanese-lanvuage.
​
Given that “握瓮” (Nigiri-Game] is a concept applied within Okinawan Goju Ryu Karate-Do as “Sanchin-Game” (Three-Battles - Urn) [三戦 瓮) – the “瓮” (Game) appears at the end of the sentence, thus rendering the reading of “urn” or “jar” (the English transliteration is variable) as “game” (pronounced in English as “Gam Mi”). Of course, as Okinawa operates from a number of different language structures at any one-time - a combination of Chinese, Japanese, (indigenous) Okinawan, and South-East Asian (together with “English since the defeat of Imperial Japan in 1945) – the usual idioms and conventions expected in other languages - might - or might not – existentially operate. Assumptions of usage must be researched at the point of contact whenever encountered.

The Okinawans prefer to use the ideogram “瓮” for “game” – instead of “甕” (both pronounced “weng4”) the latter assessed above. The assumption is that both ideograms convey the same interpretation – albeit in slightly different ways:

​瓮 (Jap: game) [Chin: weng4]
​
Top-particle = 公 (gong1) – public, communal, official
Lower-particle = 瓦 (was3) – earthenware, pottery, roof-tile

This assessment seems to suggest that “瓮” refers to any earthenware-constructed objects which are used within human society – whilst placed on continuous public display - performing their intended function. Indeed, Japanese-language dictionaries suggest NOT an “urn” – but rather a “roof-tile”. The reading only becomes “urn” (jar) when read in the light of the “甕” ideogram – which clearly indicates a waterproof “container” or “vessel” constructed using clay. The “瓮” ideogram appears in the Seal Script (developed between 700 BCE-200 CE) – whilst there are NO ancient versions of the ideogram “甕”. This indicates that “瓮” is the older ideogram (used within Okinawan script) – whilst  “甕” is a later (clarifying) development. 

Within Okinawan Goju Ryu Karate-Do - the "鎚石" (Chi Ishi) is a body-conditioning training device - comprised of a rounded weight (made of sculptured "stone") - affixed to the base of a long wooden handle:

"鎚石" (Chi Ishi) = Hammer Stone (threshing-device)

鎚 [Jap: zui, tsui, tsuchi] (Chin: chui2) = hammer, mallet, mace, spindle

石 [Jap: ishi] (Chin: shi2) = stone, rock, heavy-hard substance (such as "jade"), unit of weight (linked to measuring volume of rice)

This traditional martial arts training device (in Okinawa) is named using old Chinese ideograms pronounced in a manner that mixes Okinawan and Japanese (verbal) language structures. Indeed, modern Japanese expression does not exactly match the old Okinawan pronunciation. This might express the fact that Okinawa possesses its own unique dialect-language which developed independent from both the direct influence of both China and Japan. 

​Checking the Fujian (Hokkien and other Min) dialects - I found the following information with regards the pronunciation of these two ideograms:

"鎚石" (Chi Ishi)

鎚 - [South Min] Hokkien = tui, thui - North Min = tu - East Min = tui

石 - [South Min] Hokkien = chioh - North Min = cio East Min = sioh, Puxian Min = sieo

​What is the farming-function of the "鎚石" (Chi Ishi)? When these two ideograms appear in both Chinese and Japanese texts, they are usually used in the context of "threshing". A threshing (or "thrashing") device is designed for use in the farming activity of "separating" grain (or another similar crop) from the straw (dead, hardened grass) to which it is naturally attached. It would seem that the "鎚石" (Chi Ishi) is used hardened-base downward - whilst it is thrust toward the ground by the handle - striking the crop that requires "separating". Whether the rounded-base strikes into a slightly larger rounded receiving area - I cannot tell. Today, this weighted device is used within Goju Ryu Karate-Do as an upper (and lower) body-building and body-strengthening (conditioning) device which systematically develops strength, stamina, endurance, stability, power, timing, and all-round awareness.

​Conceptually, there is a link between the "鎚石" (Chi Ishi) - and the Family Crest (Stamp) ["家紋" Jap: Ka Mon - Chin: Jia Wen] used in Japan by prominent (noble) families. These are invariably "round" in structure (the origin of the Goju Ryu badge - which is the "Myagi" ["宮城"] Family Crest), are made of stone, jade or a similar hard-wearing (and often "precious") material, and used to "stamp" a unique design in an official wax-seal - or some other similar (identifying) substance. In this instance, the "stone" component has a distinct "pattern" engraved upon its base which is reproduced into the receiving material by a sharp, downward thrust of the hand. These "stamps" are comprised of a rounded stone base affixed to a wooden-handle. 

Dear Tony

I was reading a Chinese-language article regarding the history of Karate-Do in Okinawa and Japan - and I discovered Funakoshi Gichin's original grading syllabus - which he produced in 1924 (developed from Judo). By the time I encountered Karate-Do grading in the early 1980s (through Wado-Kai and Shukokai), most Japanese styles had consolidated their grades into far fewer (with many progressing from White, to Yellow, Orange, Green, Blue, Purple, Brown [3 sub-grades], and Black [10 Dans]). When I encountered Goju Ryu during the mid to late 1980s, however, I discovered what looks like the far more traditional ranking-system.

I read later that Goju Ryu, being Okinawan (with direct cultural links to China), did not originally have grades (traditional Chinese gongfu - such as our family style - does not possess formal grades). Gradng was only forced onto the style by the Japanese government (I believe initially in 1936 [as part of the cultural splitting with China - in preparation for war] - but this was not taken-up with any great enthusiasm at the time in Okinawa). Grades were finally adopted in the 1960s - as Karate-Do spread all over the world and became popular. 

I note that the rank of "5 Dan" carries the honorific of "錬士" Jap: "Ren Shi") [or Chin: "lian4 shi4"]. 

錬 (Ren) = forge, cultivate, temper

士 (Shi) = warrior, scholar, skilled

Therefore, "錬士" seems to mean "Refined Warrior-Scholar". 

錬 (Ren) = left-particle - 金 (jin1) - "Metal"

錬 (Ren) = right-particle - 柬 (Jian3) - "Refine"

金 (jin1) [left-particle] = 亼 (ji2) [upper element] - mark, collect, gather (as in to "find" iron ore)

丷 (ba1) [middle element] - (contraction of "八") - in old dictionaries "two blocks of metal" - as in "two separate the iron ore" through the smelting process

士 (shi4) [lower element] - in old dictionaries, an "upside down rritual axe" made of metal (the product of smelting and forging iron ore)

柬 (Jian3) [right-particle] = 束 (shu4) [outer element] - select, gather, bind (tie) + 

八 (ba1) [inner element] - "8" or in this context - to "divide" and "separate"

It is interesting to see "士" (shi4) meaning "scholar", "warrior" (traditional) and "metal axe" (ancient).

The issuing of a "Hamon" [破門] is a solemn occurrence. Within Confucian culture this is nothing less than an "Expulsion" Order. Sensei Higaonna Morio was excluded from his own Organisation by a Kabel of Europeans and Japanese (the Japanese racially discriminate against Okinawans as not being truly "Japanese" - but rather "Chinese" - which is the actual origin of most of these people and their culture martial or otherwise, others arising from cultures throughout South-East Asia). There is another, more telling effect of a "Hamon". This involves the annulling of all "Grades" issued by Higaonna Sensei - either in his name (or in his person) - and ALL "Grades" issued by his subordinates (and their subordinates) fanning-out through society and time.

​This means that not only are the five subject to the "Hamon" Order hereby (automatically) deprived of their "Grades" (both historically and existentially) - but also the hundreds (or thousands) of "Grades" issued (personally) by themselves or by their Students (and their Students) are also hereby (automatically) "Dissolved". This "Hamon" Order will effect the lives of thousands of people whose lineal association with Higaonna Sensei is now "Wiped-Out" for all time. This is the price the five accused have to suffer for their "Disrespectful" behaviour - and their unwillingness to "Reform" when being given the chance to do so by Higaonna Sensei. Their Students are also subject to this punishment for NOT defying their Teachers - and coming to the aid of Higaonna Sensei when the "Offences" where being committed!

In reality is that these individuals, who have not shown any respect toward Higaonna Sensei in the past, will not show any now. They will simply continue to "Claim" the Grades Higaonna Sensei granted to them - and go about their careers acting as if these Grades originated from some other Karate-Do Authority. I have seen this pattern happening in the UK for decades (since at least the 1980s) involving, Wado Ryu, Shotokan, Shukokai and Goju Ryu, etc. Those "Excluded" practitioners either associate themselves with a different Karate-Do Teacher (to whom they share NO historical association) usually for a fair price (usually a Teacher from a different Style - "antagonistic" to the Style doing the excluding) - or they simply "invent" their own Style - and declare themselves an overnight "Master". 

Translator's Note: I have translated this text uploaded as a post on the Russian language Telegram Channel representing "Okinawan Goju Ryu Karate-Do" (Окинавское Годзю-рю каратэ). It involves an important document issued by Higaonna Morio Sensei after his return to Okinawa after his very successful visit to Russia.

破 = po4 - smash, tear, cut, break, destroy, and remove

門 = men2 - gate, door, entrance, sect, school, and family

Within Chinese Confucian culture, "Po Men" (Jap: "Ha Mon") refers to a Teacher expelling an individual from a Family Style of Gongfu for the offence of "Disrespect". This is the Western equivalent of being "Disowned" - but means that no-one associated or related with the Teacher (or his Style) can have any further interaction with the accused. Furthermore, the accused is no longer permitted to claim he knows the Teacher, or has ever trained in his Style. Their career in this respect is over. To all intents and purposes, the accused is "Dead" to the accused - and anyone associated or related to the accused. Obviously, this is a very serious offence to be accused of. ACW (6.11.2024)

"Today, information has arrived from Okinawa that Higaonna Sensei has released a 'Hamon' regarding five of his former students:

Nakamura Tetsuji

Ernie Molyneux

Henrik Larson

Yamashiro Katsuya

Jorge Monteiro

Hamon - this is extremely rare and very traditional ceremony for the schools of martial arts in Japan.

Higaonna Sensei waited patiently for two years, giving these people a chance to remember about their place and sense of duty, but, finally, Higaonna Sensei decided to put an end to this era of poor behaviour and disrespect by issuing the 'Hamon'. In Japan, 'Hamon' is very rare and is not something that is used lightly or often, as it denotes unforgivable disrespect.

Many outside of Japan (Okinawa) do not comprehend the seriousness of this injunction. In fact, the 'Certificate of Hamon' is issued by the Head Teacher of the School, when a student(s) previously accepted into the family - has been involved in actions that are so reprehensible (and disgusting) that the O'Sensei has no choice but to permanently 'exclude' (delete) this individual(s) from his family lineage. 

"The 'Hamon' is issued to inform all "friends, family, members and acquaintances" that the accused no longer has any ties to the School, the Teacher or his Lineage. The Grades and Honours achieved by such individuals are permanently annulled - and their presence completely expunged from the School's Genealogy."

​Russian Language Text:

https://t.me/Go_Goju_Ryu/785

Сегодня с Окинавы пришла информация о том, что Хигаонна Сэнсей выдал Хамон в отношении пятерых своих бывших учеников:

Накамура Тетсуджи

Эрни Моленью

Хенрик Ларсон

Ямаширо Кацуя

Джордж Монтеиро

Хамон - это чрезвычайно редкий и очень традиционный обряд для школ боевых искусств Японии.

Хигаонна Сенсей терпеливо ждал два года, давая этим людям шанс вспомнить о своей части, но, наконец, решил положить конец этой беспокойной эпохе, выдав Хамон. В Японии «Хамон» выдается очень редко и не является чем-то, к чему относятся легкомысленно. По сути, Сертификат Хамона выдается наставником - главой школы, когда ученик был вовлечен в действия, которые настолько отвратительны, что у Сэнсея нет иного выбора, кроме как вычеркнуть этого члена из его родословной. Хамон выдается для того, чтобы информировать «друзей, семью, членов и знакомых», что получатель Хамона больше не имеет никаких связей со школой, учителем и его наследием. Он полностью исключается из генеалогии школы.

破門 (Хамон) - дословно означает сломать врата. Те самые символические врата-мон, через которые ученик входит в школу.

​The latest Genetic DNA research for Japan and Okinawa which reveals three main strands of migration from Mainland Asia. The myth of a single (divine) race is obviously untrue - but many Japanese people believe this (particularly rejecting any association with China). Okinawa has 28% Jomon - but I suspect the other 72% (I will have to check the full data) will reflect the DNA of the 36 Fujian Chinese families that settled there. 

An added complication is that Hakka Chinese people (my family) have Siberian DNA and migrated Southward from Siberia down through China over thousands of years - often mixing with the local population. Needless to say, many Fujian people are Hakka and given that the best Chinese martial arts are Hakka - I suspect some of the 36 families sent to Okinawa were also Hakka. The Ainu are an ethnic group living in Northern Japan who are short, muscular with the men growing long beards. They worship bears and in the Old days were considered some type of migrating European - but DNA has disproved this myth. Either way, the modern Japanese view the Ainu as being "non-Japanese" and therefore primitive. 

English Language Article:

By studying the genomes of more than 3,000 people across Japan, researchers have shed light on the population’s complex ancestry. The work may also pave the way for future precision medicine.

Researchers discovered that the genetic lineage of Japan’s population includes three ancestral groups, revising the previous understanding of just two. By using whole-genome sequencing of over 3,200 individuals from across Japan, the study identified significant genetic variations and ties to north-east Asia, particularly the Emishi people.

Genetic Diversity in Japan A Genetic Study led by scientists from RIKEN’s Centre for Integrative Medical Sciences has uncovered evidence that people in Japan descend from three ancestral groups.[1]

The findings, published recently in the journal Science Advances, challenge the longstanding belief that there were two main ancestral groups in Japan: the indigenous Jomon hunter-gatherer-fishers and the rice-farming migrants from east Asia.

Instead, the researchers identified a third group with potential ties to north-east Asia—the so-called Emishi people, thus lending further credence to a ‘tripartite origins’ theory first suggested in 2021.[2]
​
The Japanese population isn’t as genetically homogenous as everyone thinks, says RIKEN’s Chikashi Terao, who led the study. “Our analysis revealed Japan’s subpopulation structure on a fine scale, which is very beautifully classified according to geographical locations in the country.

Combing for Clues Terao’s team arrived at their conclusions after sequencing the DNA of more than 3,200 people across seven regions of Japan, running the length of the country from Hokkaido in the north to Okinawa in the south. It is one of the largest genetic analyses of a non-European population to date.

The researchers used a technique called whole-genome sequencing, which reveals an individual’s complete genetic makeup—all three billion DNA base pairs. It provides roughly 3,000 times more information than the DNA microarray method, which up until now has been used more widely. “Whole-genome sequencing gives us the chance to look at more data, which helps us find more interesting things,” says Terao.

Exploring Ancestral Links and Rare Gene Variants to further enhance the data’s usefulness and examine the potential links between genes and certain diseases, he and his collaborators combined the DNA information obtained with relevant clinical data, including disease diagnoses, test results and information on both medical and family history. They collated all of this into a database known as the Japanese Encyclopaedia of Whole-Genome/Exome Sequencing Library (JEWEL).

One topic of particular interest to Terao’s was the study of rare gene variants. “We reasoned that rare variants can sometimes be traced back to specific ancestral populations, and could be informative in revealing fine-scale migration patterns within Japan,” he explains.

Their hunch proved right, helping to reveal the geographic distribution of Japanese ancestry. Jomon ancestry, for instance, is most dominant in the southern, subtropical shores of Okinawa (found in 28.5% of samples) while lowest in the west (just 13.4% of samples). By contrast, people living in western Japan have more genetic affinity with Han Chinese people—which Terao’s team believes is likely associated with the influx of migrants from east Asia between the year 250 and year 794, and is also reflected in the comprehensive historical adoption of Chinese-style legislation, language, and educational systems in this region.

Emishi ancestry, on the other hand, is most common in northeastern Japan, decreasing to the west of the country.

Insights From Archaic Human DNAThe researchers also examined JEWEL for genes inherited from Neanderthals and Denisovans, two groups of archaic humans that interbred with Homo sapiens. “We are interested in why ancient genomes are integrated and kept in modern human DNA sequences,” says Terao, who explains that such genes are sometimes associated with certain traits or conditions.

For instance, other researchers have shown that people in Tibet have Denisovan-derived DNA within a gene called EPAS1, which is believed to have aided their colonization of high-altitude environments.[3] More recently, scientists discovered that a cluster of Neanderthal-inherited genes on chromosome 3—a trait that is present in roughly half of all south Asians—is linked to a higher risk of respiratory failure and other severe symptoms of Covid-19.[4]

The analysis by Terao’s team shed light on 44 ancient DNA regions present in Japanese people today, most of which are unique to East Asians. These include a Denisovan-derived one, located within the NKX6-1 gene, known to be associated with type 2 diabetes, which the researchers say could affect a person’s sensitivity to semaglutide, an oral medication used to treat the disease. They also identified 11 Neanderthal-derived segments linked to coronary artery disease, prostate cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and four other conditions.

The Future of Personalized MedicineThe RIKEN-led researchers also used data on rare genetic variants to uncover the potential causes of diseases. For example, they found that one variant of a gene called PTPRD has the potential to be “highly damaging” because it could be linked with hypertension, kidney failure, and myocardial infarction, says Xiaoxi Liu, a senior scientist in Terao’s lab and the study’s first author.

Additionally, the scientists noted significant incidence of variants—also called loss-of-function variants—in the GJB2 and ABCC2 genes, which are associated with hearing loss and chronic liver disease, respectively.

Teasing out the relationship between genes, their variants, and how these impact traits, including disease predisposition, could one day play a role in helping scientists develop personalized medicine, says Terao.

“What we’ve tried to do is to find and catalogue loss-of-function gene variants that are very specific to Japanese people, and to understand why they are more likely to have some specific traits and diseases,” he says. “We’d like to connect population differences with differences in genetics.”

In the future, he hopes to expand JEWEL and include even more DNA samples in the dataset. For the longest time, large-scale genomic studies have focused on analyzing data from people of European descent. But Terao says it’s “quite important to expand this to the Asian population so that in the long run, the results can benefit us too.”
References:

1. “Decoding triancestral origins, archaic introgression, and natural selection in the Japanese population by whole-genome sequencing” by Xiaoxi Liu, Satoshi Koyama, Kohei Tomizuka, Sadaaki Takata, Yuki Ishikawa, Shuji Ito, Shunichi Kosugi, Kunihiko Suzuki, Keiko Hikino, Masaru Koido, Yoshinao Koike, Momoko Horikoshi, Takashi Gakuhari, Shiro Ikegawa, Kochi Matsuda, Yukihide Momozawa, Kaoru Ito, Yoichiro Kamatani and Chikashi Terao, 17 April 2024, Science Advances.
   DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adi8419
2. “Ancient genomics reveals tripartite origins of Japanese populations” by Niall P. Cooke, Valeria Mattiangeli, Lara M. Cassidy, Kenji Okazaki, Caroline A. Stokes, Shin Onbe, Satoshi Hatakeyama, Kenichi Machida, Kenji Kasai, Naoto Tomioka, Akihiko Matsumoto, Masafumi Ito, Yoshitaka Kojima, Daniel G. Bradley, Takashi Gakuhari and Shigeki Nakagome, 17 September 2021, Science Advances.
   DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abh2419
3. “Altitude adaptation in Tibetans caused by introgression of Denisovan-like DNA” by Emilia Huerta-Sánchez, Xin Jin, Asan, Zhuoma Bianba, Benjamin M. Peter, Nicolas Vinckenbosch, Yu Liang, Xin Yi, Mingze He, Mehmet Somel, Peixiang Ni, Bo Wang, Xiaohua Ou, Huasang, Jiangbai Luosang, Zha Xi Ping Cuo, Kui Li, Guoyi Gao, Ye Yin, Wei Wang, Xiuqing Zhang, Xun Xu, Huanming Yang, Yingrui Li, Jian Wang, Jun Wang and Rasmus Nielsen, 2 July 2014, Nature.
   DOI: 10.1038/nature13408
4. “The major genetic risk factor for severe COVID-19 is inherited from Neanderthals” by Hugo Zeberg, and Svante Pääbo, 30 September 2020, Nature.
   DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2818-3